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2008-10-09 14:56:00
开新贴之前，先上一些传播学入门的一些必备知识和重要的传播学名词概念的英文释义~
Approximately five hundred years ago a new form of communication arose. This "mass" communication process, which makes use of permanent text that can be made available to millions of people at the same time, has quickly become an important factor in the lives of many human beings.
By removing words from the world of sound where they had first had their origin in active human interchange and relegating them definitively to visual surface, and by otherwise exploiting visual space for the management of knowledge, print encouraged human beings to think of their own interior conscious and unconscious resources as more and more thing-like, impersonal and religiously neutral. Print encouraged the mind to sense that its possessions were held in some sort of inert mental space. - Walter J. Ong ~: p W% V4 V- N" @5 t' e( k& q
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For much of human history speech and body language were the only available forms of communication. This changed when writing was developed, probably around the year 3000 BC in the area of the world that we now call the Middle East.
The most obvious difference between writing and speech is in their media. Whereas speech is carried by sound waves in the air, writing is usually carried by one substance impressed upon another, as, for example, ink on paper. [Note:Ink-On-Paper% a3 k5 Q6 {! M' F6 ]4 |: d* Q
Currently, the most widely used medium for written communication is ink-on-paper. Although this will be used in the tutorial examples, the reader should remember that writing may use other media, including such as chalk-on-slate, carving-in-stone, smoke-in-air, pixels-on-screen, crayon-on-wall, paint-on-sidewalk and many others. ] Even in its simplest form, the invention of writing produced significant changes in human communication.
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The next major change came with the discovery of printed text in Europe in the late 1500s. Whereas written documents could only be produced by individuals, one document at a time, printed documents could be mass produced. The phenominon that we now call mass communication dates from the invention of print.
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Some scholars argue that the next great change occurred in or around 1950 with the discovery of the computer. However, while digital data processing certainly has brought changes to our society, we are perhaps too close to the date of its birth to evaluate it clearly.
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The fact that writing remains in existence long after it has been created is so remarkable that we give a special name, text, to the visible remains. Humans receive textual messages via their eyes. It has been argued that this visual aspect of text is important in and of itself because it shapes the way human beings pay attention to their environment, and this shapes the way that they think about themselves. 5 [, n- r6 ^+ j4 k
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Text-using societies tend to be visually oriented, whereas speech-using societies tend to be aurally oriented. Thus, when scholars initiated the study of text, they discovered that communication not only helps shape individual relationships, but it also plays a role in defining the social environment. / i# o2 S& ~) n5 b u. R' N
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Those who study communication disagree as to the exact definition of the term, "text." In its broadest sense text is "that which is perceived by the reader," however, this conceivably could be any data that is taken in by the eye, and to many this seems to be too broad a concept. This section of the tutorial will limit the discussion to the narrower definition of text as "print," by which is meant marks made in one substance upon another.6 W$ Y+ N p; S4 H t0 `/ L
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TEXT AND MEANING# o r7 V9 v3 N
As was shown earlier, the Shannon/Weaver Model describes communication as a process that includes a transmitter who initiates the communication, a signal that moves through a medium, a receiver who notices the signal, and noise that may alter the signal. ; O) ?6 Z; f, r5 h. D4 u" M+ E
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In terms of this model, text can be seen as being created by the writer and then moving through time and space until it is encountered by the reader. The medium is light waves, and the signal is formed as light bounces off of the paper and ink and into the reader's eyes. While the text is in transit, noise may act to make it less understandable -- the writing may fade, for example, or pages may be torn or missing. " z* O: l; G! R9 n$ O9 }
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This is accurate as far as it goes, but it does little to demonstrate how text relates to meaning. However, it is possible to produce a somewhat different model that is more amenable to the discussion of meaning.
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In this model the reader, the writer and the text exist in the world, which is their environment and with which they interact. The reader and the writer interact directly with the text, and indirectly with one another by means of the text, which itself becomes a medium of communication. Thus, reader, writer and text are seen as an interconnected system.
One way to interpret this model is to imagine that the writer, who has thoughts to communicate, expresses them by creating a text. The reader and the writer share a language code, and so when the reader encounters the text, he or she becomes the receiver of the writer's thoughts.
But this description leads to a number of perplexing questions. For example:
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What if the writer is dead? Can a dead individual somehow be said to be communicating with the living?
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are many examples of anonymous text? Who, exactly, is the writer in these cases?
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What if the code is only partially known to the reader, and he or she misunderstands the text? Is communication meaningful if it is based on mistakes and errors?
Attempts to answer these and similar questions have produced four basic approaches to explaining the relationship between text and meaning. Not surprisingly, these conflict with one another. As each is examined in turn, keep in mind this question: Which of these is most responsible for the meaning of a text:
the writer's intention, - L( a% }9 O. m+ r1 C/ i1 h
the reader's interpretation,
the text itself, or
the society in which the reader and writer live?7 F
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Perhaps the most familiar approach takes the point of view that the writer of the text, who is often called the author, created the text with the intention of communicating meaningfully with the reader. This is the approach that many of us encountered in our high school literature classes where we were taught, for example, that when Herman Melville wrote Moby Dick, he intended for us to read the book and understand his thinking on the subject. ; B7 Z: r3 [* x
From this point of view, the focus is on what the writer meant to say, and the reader's task is to discern the author's thoughts. Thus, when we consider what it might mean that the protagonist whale in Moby Dick is colored white, the question we must ask is, "Why did Herman Melville choose to make his whale a white one?"
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Military orders are an example of a kind of text that is well described by this approach. In a "military order" the intention of the writer is paramount. There is no doubt that he or she intends that a particular meaning be conveyed, and if the reader has any uncertainty of the meaning of the text, that ambiguity must be resolved by attempting to understand what the writer was trying to say. The reader has no leeway for interpreting the text on his or her own. * C# \' e ?* N g" p e; u
The Reader's Interpretation* f) L, L( X2 l& a# B4 |7 k Q
Text is composed of symbols, and as ws discussed in an earlier section of this tutorial, the transmission of symbolic messages requires that the sender and receiver share a code by which the sender encodes and the receiver decodes the message. In military orders this code is very narrow -- the words "attack" and "withdraw," for example, have very specific meanings -- in order to insure that the sender will not be misunderstood. But the codes used in literature, and the texts of everyday life such as newspapers and magazines, are very broad and ambiguous, with many words having more than one possible meaning. & e, {$ c% R L8 ]4 _3 ~ ?) u) q, k
When the reader encounters such a text, he or she cannot be completely certain as to which of these meanings the writer intended. Further, the reader has led a life which contains different experiences that of the writer. Consequently, the reader is likely to make of the text something other than what the writer might have expected. ' ?+ Z! W$ Y1 O- w) n/ a6 Y
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In fact, those who adopt this approach point out that the reader need have no knowledge of the writer at all. Nor does the reader need to be concerned as to the writer's intentions. When the reader draws a meaning from the text, then that meaning is the reader's and the reader's alone. 0 M, R! }! E3 `- i# {# y
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Anonymous text fits this approach well, but in fact, any text that is read without knowledge of its author lends itself to the reader-oriented approach. ; k6 x/ Q! E. {3 ^) v
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For example, consider this quotation:: T0 |4 p2 Z9 f: Y; c* I
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And she understood that the hour had come to herself." - The Author
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3: The Text Itself2 @! M9 [9 \2 e
The text-centered approach argues that because the text was brought into the world by a writer who lived in the world, the text must contain essential truths about the world. As these truths are permanently embedded in the text, the reader, who is also living in the world, ought, with sufficient effort, to be able to discern them.
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This approach is adopted most frequently by those who study sacred texts. These, having been created by a deity, are taken to be composed entirely of truths, and in fact, it is not unusual for such texts to assert this as a primary fact. For example:
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In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. - John 1.1, Harper Study Bible, Revised Standard Version 8 `* U8 Z+ d6 [$ ?4 Z, c8 Z
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Every Word of God proves true... - Proverbs 30.5, Harper Study Bible, Revised Standard Version 5 H) Q, U6 o- K; l! ^
And similarly:
The basic book of Islam is the Koran. This is believed to be the divine law of God as uttered by Allah himself in revelations to Mohammed, and passed on by the Prophet through word of mouth.... The authority of the Koran is believed by good Moslems to be absolute. It is without any question the most influential, and the most widely read book in all Arabic literature, and probably the most faithfully read scripture in the world. - The Portable World Bible, ed. Roberto Ballou, Penguin Books, 1986.
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If a text is taken in and of itself to contain the truth, then neither the intentions of its human writers nor the interpretations of its readers are relevant. The meaning is in the text, and if two readers disagree, then they must consult the text further in attempting to resolve the disagreement. There is no other authority.
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A telephone directory is a good example of a text that lends itself to this approach. A book that contains only names and phone numbers, and assuming that there are no errors, contains only the truth. As readers, we consult the book and take what it says as fact
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Text As Environment
Although each of the previous approaches works well for some varieties of text, none of them works entirely well for all text. In fact, most of the text that we encounter was written by someone who intended to say something; most readers extract meanings that the writer did not intend; most text contains some truth. Given this, scholars continue to argue as to which of the three approaches is the most effective. 4 N% s; W9 K8 l$ V; s$ ~8 N
A fourth approach attempts to resolve this dilemma by considering text as part of the human social environment. According to this approach, each author adds to the "communication environment," and each reader takes meanings from it. When considered from this point of view, the text is not separate from the world, but is part of it. Writers and readers, who are also part of the world, participate in the "textual experience."
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As an example, consider the text called a "newspaper." Because many writers and editors contribute to each edition, there is no way to identify a single "author." As readers read the paper, they compare what they read to their experience in the world, and they discuss what they read with other readers. The meanings that readers take from the newspapers become the raw material of other texts, including such as the television and radio news of the day, and the next day's newspapers. The text of the newspaper is stored in libraries and other archives where it can be referenced at any time. Thus, the text becomes part of the fabric of the life of a society. 6 T+ i, c, h/ W3 Z; i
This goes deeper than the simple thought that "everyone reads more or less the same text." Because the codes by which humans communicate are shared by all members of the society, they, too, are part of the communication environment. This means that the texts, the people, the interpretations, and the rules that govern the interpretations are all mutually interactive. 9 T" d! h) I! V) [7 S
For example, we might again consider the quote that was presented earlier:
And she understood that the hour had come to herself.
While readers may have no knowledge of the author of this quotation, they are not completely free to interpret the text however they might wish. The language codes that constrain the interpretation insist that the person referenced in the sentence be identified as female; that she be seen as thinking about her personal situation; and that her thoughts be considered as having something to do with time. 9 M, v& t( y1 S9 B. @
In the same way that readers of this tutorial will share these particular meanings, all members of any particular society share a tremendously rich environment of other meanings which derive from their common codes and their common reservoirs of text.
The fourth, or cultural approach points out that these resources are applied in different ways at different times. Sometimes humans express their intention as authors, sometimes they develop unique connotations as readers, sometimes they search for eternal truths. Thus, the common ground of text is found in the two complementary faces of human communication: the society and the self.
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An even broader definition of the term "text" arises from considering the maxim that "you can't not communicate." An the words of Anthony Wilden:7 M2 [* ~ W3 H6 I& ^
Let it be emphasized that the communication of information does not necessarily imply the use of language, nor consciously perceived sending or receiving, nor consciously intended communication, nor consciously noted understanding. As already noted, every act, every pause, every movement in living and social systems is also a message; silence is communication; short of death it is impossible for an organism or a person not to communicate.Wilden A# N" C9 W
Thus, those who accept the existence of the communication environment, are driven to conclude that any source of information might be considered as text. - s, q2 y1 J8 g# V
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For example, natural phenomena can be "read" -- a red sunset tells the watcher that it might rain tomorrow, flocks of geese flying south indicate that winter is near, and so on. In terms of this approach, scholars may view the physical world as a large, complex text which communicates a part of reality to its human readers. This notion is similar to the text-oriented approach that was described above -- the world is a text whose meaning is "true," and as observers, humans must try to puzzle out its meaning.
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The essence of "communication" is that it is a process -- an activity that serves to connect senders and receivers of messages through space and time. Although human beings tend to be interested primarily in the study of human communication, the process is present in all living things and, it can be argued, in all things. From this we may conclude that communication is a fundamental, universal process. . [4 K/ R- P$ f3 r4 {) e+ S0 G
1. the act of transmitting 2. a) a giving or exchanging of information, signals or messages by talk, gestures, writing, etc. b) the information, message, etc. 3. close, sympathetic relationship. 4. a means of communicating; specif., a) [pl.] a system for sending and receiving messages, as by telephone, telegraph, radio, etc. b) [pl.] a system as of routes for moving troops and materiel c) a passage or way of getting from one place to another 5. [often pl. with sing. v.] a) the art of expressing ideas, esp. in speech and writing b) the science of transmitting information, esp. in symbols." - Webster's New World Dictionary, 2nd College Edition. Q2 L* _8 \7 q1 N6 ?9 _
How often have you heard statements such as these? " x( `7 d% q* N u
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If you want to be promoted, you'll have to improve your communication skills. ! t. n& {) a$ Y
One of the strengths of our relationship over the years has been that we communicate so well - in fact, usually I know what she's thinking before she tells me!
The lightening storm knocked out our communication systems, and since then we haven't handled a single customer call. % H9 w* G4 Y# ~& ^: h' r8 f1 q
He's really smart, and he knows his stuff, but as a teacher he just doesn't communicate it very well.
They say they built the product to meet our specifications, but it's not what we asked for - I think we have a communication problem here. ) k: w( K% f1 _8 ~9 O6 a' w- F- ?
The word "communicate" derives from the word "common" - to share, exchange, send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, put in use, relate. So an investigation of this subject might begin with the question: What do all studies of communication have in common? What are the shared concepts that make the study of "communication" different from the study of subjects such as "thought" or "literature" or "life?" When someone says, "this is a communication problem," what does that mean? : U& Y0 W& o7 w) n1 p# }3 p
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This tutorial begins with one of the definitions of "communication" that is included in the dictionary entry that starts this section:, H" h- |9 N, z+ ~( ]% }) u* V
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Communication: a system for sending and receiving messages.
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An investigation of this statement will lead first to the idea of a system, and then to the idea of messages.
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A "system" is typically described as a collection of parts which are interconnected, or related to, one another and which also relate to the environment which surrounds the system. In the picture below, the circles and rectangles represent the parts, the solid lines represent the relationships among the parts, and the arrows show the system's interaction with its environment.
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To say that the elements of a system are interconnected implies that if something happens to change one part, then at least one other part must change, too. Naturally, as soon as that second part changes, some other part must then change ... and so on. This is somewhat like the effect of touching a bowl of gelatin - a single touch results in a long period of jiggling motion.
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Because systems interact with their environments, they are constantly being "touched" from the outside. This means that most systems are constantly changing, and, because these changes take time, a system cannot be described as having one particular shape. It is this property that makes systems useful for studying the kinds of situations that scholars usually refer to as events, or processes. : h0 R/ O7 a7 t2 f! o/ p
The idea of a system is well illustrated by the device called a "mobile." The parts of this system, or objects, as they are often called, are represented in the illustration below as "fishes." The relationships are established by the bars, which maintain a horizontal spacing among the fish, and the pieces of string, which keep the fish at certain vertical depths./ b: Z0 k1 G3 k- o% T
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Notice that the strings and bars$ |% B5 R. `, C7 Z, g) k
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connect every fish with every other fish,
allow the fish to move around quite a bit, yet confine them to a certain area and keep them from falling apart. . C: R9 [7 r3 L
This is a fine example of how a system works. If any one fish moves, at least one other fish will react by moving, too. Thus, the smallest breeze will keep the mobile in constant motion. The following quotation by Stephen Littlejohn provides a more formal definition of the term "system"
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From the simplest perspective, a system can be said to consist of four things.
The first is objects. The objects are the parts, elements, or variables of the system. These objects may be physical or abstract or both, depending on the nature of the system.
Second, a system consists of attributes, or the qualities or properties of the system and its objects.
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Third, a system must possess internal relationships among its objects. This characteristic is a crucial defining quality of systems. A relationship among objects implies a mutual effect (interdependence) and constraint. + @# \- i; K8 U& C/ ^
Fourth, systems also possess an environment. They do not exist in a vacuum but are affected by their surroundings. - Littlejohn, x
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Clearly, the "fish" mobile meets these requirements! p" S1 {( L0 { ~" k3 M
It is important to do the following exercise. Thinking about systems in this way is the most effective way to understand them.
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Consider each of the three systems named here and try to: " Q. X" J. ]8 a% k0 R4 b+ b
name some of the objects that make up the system,
name some of the relationships among the objects,
describe the environment of the system, and ' \1 C+ I4 u" l; r* Z
describe ways in which the system is constantly changing. 9005 9006
THREE SYSTEMS:
Your body's nervous system, N9 `$ z2 A2 W. `
The legal system of the United States, ' s$ c$ U2 I& k
The U. S. Interstate Highway system
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THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATION
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Notice that these example systems have communication in common. / y( ]7 U+ a; b1 S: ^
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The nervous system carries messages from the nerve endings in our extremities to our brains and back.
The legal system includes thousands of individuals talking to one another, laws being read and interpreted, forms being filled out, and so on. - d, G1 k; n, E- E
The highway system requires constant communication among drivers - turn signals, brake lights, and so on - and between drivers and their vehicles - as, for example, when you "tell" your car to turn left by pulling on the steering wheel.( V8 G0 f- r% Z5 ^
In fact, it might be said that communication is the "glue" that holds a system together. This gives insight into the nature of communication itself, to wit:
Communication Connects( D0 K$ N1 R9 v0 n
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But communication is not merely passive connection. Rather, communication is the process of connecting. It is a collection of renewable actions that work throughout space and over time to form relationships among objects. 4 Q$ ^/ d( y- G* j
Communication is not an object itself; it is not a thing, and this leads to a second insight into the nature of communication.+ d* J" S6 M% C/ E
Communication Happens* x( V* q5 m0 ?/ L& l
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This is an important observation. It implies that communication can never fully be understand by looking only at "things." To understand communication, we must also look at the relationships among the "things" and at the environments in which the "things" reside. 9008 , k4 p, k# F. M" D/ k; c
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For example, consider some common communication "things":
a paperback copy of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, / C3 c4 R9 E6 ^- b3 F( m
a video tape of the CNN 6:00 news broadcast on May 5th, 1990, * Y- ?6 S/ A4 k$ E
a written invitation to attend my sister's wedding. 9002 8 @8 Y6 `- |' l4 E) J
In each case the thing - the actual book, the actual video tape, the actual invitation - is not the communication. 8 m S) @) b @
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The communication is the process that connects the readers of the book to the story told by the author. - l, c* n" _5 P: Q5 |; ^( W
The communication is the process that connects the watchers of the broadcast to the events of the day.
The communication is the process that connects my sister and I via the announcement of her wedding. o9 i- @! N; @/ q* X( h: M
True, the book, the tape and the invitation are a part of the communication process, but they are only a part.
There are additional observations to be drawn from these examples. 0 v6 k" u2 q: T) i, v& Y( e
Communication always happens between or among - it takes at least two to communicate.
Communication involves an exchange - of electrical signals, of sounds, words, pages of print, or whatever. 9 S) v. P) D. G; L' u
For ease, these exchanges among communicators will be given the general name: messages.
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Notice, for example, that each of the previous set of examples contained sender and a receiver and a message. The book was written by its author to be read by its audience. The video tape was produced by one group of people to be watched by another. And the invitation is a message sent from my sister to me.
The idea of "messages" is considered at length in these tutorials. At this point, however, it is appropriate to reiterate the two basic rules that have just been uncovered: X& d2 z u+ L* s0 s3 Y
Communication is a process that happens among and acts to connect communicators through space and over time.
Communication involves the creation, transmission, and reception of messages.
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HUMAN AND NON-HUMAN COMMUNICATION
Here are a few of the many examples of the communication process that exist in the world that human beings inhabit.
When a truck picks up a cargo in New Orleans and delivers it to Baltimore, communication has happened.
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When someone steps out onto the beach in Oregon and the salt air touches their nose and the smell of the ocean comes into their mind, communication has happened. , N( a. C& |+ `0 l
When two stray cats meet for sex in an alley in Los Angeles, communication has happened.
When the United States Congress passes, and the President signs, a new law raising the import duty on peanuts, communication has happened.
When a child having breakfast in Phoenix and reads the back of a cereal box, communication has happened.
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When a whaling ship in the northern Pacific fires a harpoon gun and connects with a surfacing whale, communication has happened. 3 C D7 V% H$ k& d) j- B) y
When a baby sees its mother's face for the first time, communication has happened. 0 V" o: N& T4 }2 z% _# \, X
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When a computer in New York City calls up a computer in Tokyo and transmits a message, communication has happened. 9012 + J* C( Z3 Z/ f$ F# K7 h. B
Clearly then, under the definition of communication that was developed in the previous section of this tutorial, the sender and the receiver of messages can be such as whales, cereal boxes, nerve cells, and computers. This leads to the next insight into the nature of communication.+ D7 B. u* ^- |! R/ N/ |0 M
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Communication is a general phenomenon which does not require the presence of human beings.
Of course, as human beings ourselves, we are naturally most interested in human communication, and in fact the remainder of these tutorials are devoted to exactly that. But for a moment, take time to consider the wider implication - that communication is the glue that holds everything together. Here are a few examples. 9013 8 u2 V; p" n% m2 g, N0 ]: h V) M
A school of fish swims lazily through the water beneath the sea. Suddenly, the entire school turns as one and flits off in a new direction.1 K! W# u5 o" { K0 |
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Surely it is some form of communication that permits the school to move with such precision. But which? Visual - each fish watching the one in front? Through a sense of sound? Or of smell? Jeremy Campbell comments on the biological role of communication 9023 9024 9025 ( n0 u4 d- n2 W6 B8 a" j4 `
communication is not confined to radios, telephones, and television channels. It occurs in nature, wherever life exists. The genes are a system for sending chemical messages to the protein factories of the cell, instructing them to make a living organism. The human being is the most complex communications network on earth. - Campbell 1982, 67 s7 \, {% O2 K5 C ~8 p" a$ h
Thus, communication is not merely speech among humans. It includes the many different kinds of messages that connect organisms of all kinds. And more than that, communication plays a role in the chemical and electrical systems that constitute the organisms.
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2. Electrons orbit the nuclei of three atoms, one an oxygen atom and two of hydrogen. The result is a molecule of "water." S, B1 I/ E& \" i4 j
This might be a situation in chemistry, perhaps, or physics, but what could it have to do with communication? In response let us offer the words of Nobel Prize-winning Chemist Ilya Prigogine as he discusses the behavior of certain chemical "clocks" that change color with astounding regularity.
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Such a degree of order stemming from the activity of billions of molecules seems incredible, and indeed, if chemical clocks had not been observed, no one would believe that such a process is possible. To change color all at once, molecules must have a way to "communicate." The system has to act as a whole. We will return repeatedly to this key word, communicate, which is of obvious importance in so many fields, from chemistry to neurophysiology. - Prigogine and Strengers 1984, 148
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Communication, then, is not merely a characteristic of humans, or indeed of living organisms. It is present at the deepest levels of our material universe.
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3. A couple purchases a car and pays for it by writing a check. $ l. k# m) M; ?% Z f( |2 I
The notion of "money" covers much more than the bills and coins that we might have in our pockets. It includes checks, credit cards, stocks, and the many other devices that we use to record our relative wealth. Furthermore, the value of objects - the car in this example - is not fixed. Value is established in part by negotiation between the buyer and the seller. In fact, "money" seems to be very much a communication process.
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[此贴子已经被作者于2008-10-9 15:28:50编辑过]
4. Finally, consider a situation in which a home computer wakes itself at midnight (the hour at which the rates go down), dials the telephone number of an on-line data service, transmits the proper access codes for the service, downloads a particular data file, signs off, hangs up, saves the file to its disk, and turns itself off. , k( V/ |! Z/ E/ ^7 X1 M
This kind of machine-to-machine communication has become increasingly common since the late-1950s (when computers began to be manufactured and sold in large numbers). Over the same time period, computers have become smaller and smaller, until today some machines - automobiles, for example - contain many computers that "talk" to one another continually to control and manage the machine.7 N: q- ~# P3 u
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Perhaps one of the most useful of these is the telephone system itself. Each telephone is a computer terminal, and when we dial a number, we send a program to the central phone computer asking it to locate and "ring" a terminal somewhere in the system.* J# R9 K, ^4 J Q* P" e
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Interestingly, it was the study of telephone transmissions that led to the development of one of the most widely used models of communication. That model is described in the next section.$ |3 a( O. s, u V* a. @% y# ]( o
[此贴子已经被作者于2008-10-9 15:30:12编辑过]
上面滴是一些基础知识，下面开始介绍
[此贴子已经被作者于2008-10-12 16:57:52编辑过]
到底了
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